Introduction
Solid waste management in India is one of the significant problems due to improper waste disposal practices like open dumping which is ultimately affected by the release of poisonous gas, and groundwater pollution from leachate most certainly due to mixed waste collection (Gupta and Gupta, 2015). These factors ultimately affect the climatic conditions. Urban local bodies are responsible for the collection and handling of waste in India as per the Constitution Amendment Act of 1992 (Singh, 2019). Most of the bodies struggle owing to inadequate infrastructure, economic constraints, less social cooperation, and limited government assistance. Most dump sites are already on the verge of exhaustion and respective bodies are constrained due to limited space availability. Together, the Ministries of Housing and Urban Affairs and Environment, Forestry, and Climate Change developed policies to address India’s waste management issue. However, most of the policies were unsuccessful due to a lack of understanding and awareness within the organizations and ineffective implementation by officials.
Another threat to solid waste management is the single-use plastics that are non-biodegradable and harmful. In Indian cities, the waste collection bins are most often spilled around often due to social forbidden towards waste and mixed sorts of waste disposal practices. Microplastics mix with water polluting the rivers and oceans (Anderson et al., 2016). Most recently plastic particles are detected in human blood also (Heather A. Leslie et al., 2022). From the reports of UNPD, the amount of waste accumulated in the world is around 300 million tonnes of plastic waste, out of which only 14% of waste is collected and in particular only 9% of total waste is recycled, the rest accumulates in the ocean (Plastic Recycling: An Underperforming Sector Ripe for a Remake, 2019).
Governmental Policies in India
1,43,449 MT of MSW is approximately generated daily from India (Akhilesh Kumar, Avlokita Agrawal, 2022), owing to recent rapid urbanization, growth in population, industrialization, and lifestyle changes of the people, it is expected that the volume of the waste generated in urban India will increase to 4,50,132 TPD by 2031 and 11,95,000 TPD by 2050 (CPCB, Annual Report, 2018– 19). MSW waste constitutes 50% biodegradable waste, 20% organic matter, and 30% inorganic materials (Planning Commission of India, 2014). Around 85% of the generated waste is dumped in the local landfills (Patil et al. 2017), since most of the MSW waste generated in India contains biodegradable items, pathogens develop from this waste and affect the people involved in this chain which includes waste collectors, pickers and community living close by. These effects have various health impacts (Rana et al. 2019).
The Government of India implemented a waste-to-energy policy to address the challenges posed by waste generation and to supply consistent, clean energy as well as adopt cutting-edge technologies for the treatment of processed waste (Taneja, Dutt, and Srivastav, 2021). Composting, refuse-derived fuel, incineration, pyrolysis, waste to wealth, vermicomposting, incineration, and waste to energy are several waste processing options used in India (Singh 2020). The Swachh Bharat Mission program was started with a focus on sanitation and waste management in India. The waste management infrastructure in India is being improved through a number of initiatives established as part of this initiative. One of the initiatives to speed up the development of a scientific cure for MSW and provide creative remedies is the Swachh Survekshan (2019).
Lead-acid battery manufacturers and players involved in this supply chain are all obligated to collect the batteries under Extended producer responsibility (EPR) implemented in India by 2001.
In 2011, India further extended the EPR on plastic garbage and e-waste in addition to lead-acid batteries (Government of India, 2011). Urban Local Bodies are in charge of establishing, implementing, and coordinating the waste management system with regard to plastic garbage. The modalities of a system based on EPR may be designed by the municipal authorities. Following a rule change in 2016, producers are now responsible for collecting used multilayered plastic (MLP) sachets, pouches, or packaging (Government of India, 2016).
Governmental Policies in Sweden
Sweden has the highest recycling rate in the world and reports only 1% as landfills (Hazel, 2016). The main reason for the success of Sweden’s recycling system is the consciousness of the people about the environment. Laws regulating Sweden’s waste management system make the waste generator responsible to ensure the disposal of waste handled in an acceptable manner without compromising human health and the environment (Williams, 2005, p32). The Hierarchy for waste management priorities set by European Union Legislation released in the aspect of sustainability (Williams, 2005, p28). In 1994 a producer responsibility ordinance was released, (Williams, 2005, p128) resulted in a high recycling rate in Sweden due to an efficient functional collection system which made the producer’s responsibility align as per law and legislation. This legislation law made manufacturers and producers of the same or similar products join associations together to facilitate waste collection and recycling.
Similarly, waste food is collected by the municipality and treated in an anaerobic digester for generating biogas. The generated gas will be used for vehicles and act as an alternative to Natural gas adversely reducing CO2 emissions. By 2018, to increase the recycling rate Swedish Government declared producers of waste generators to install waste collection points close to residential properties no less than 60% of the residential population at the earliest of 2021(Sweden.se, 2021). North Sweden is cold and dark for the majority of the year, owing to the need for a highly efficient heating system (Swedish Commission on Climate and Vulnerability, 2007). Due to the heavy demand for energy, residual wastes are used for incinerators for generating heat as well as electricity. Since there is a demand for more residual waste used in form of fuel, the only way is to import waste from neighboring countries, most likely from Norway and UK (Amy, 2018). The waste management system in Sweden is successful because of the projected plan on environmental policies, with respect for the nature and population of the country. Upcoming regulations are likely to increase the recycling rate and adversely reduce the impact on the environment by the generation of waste (Regerinngskansliet, 2018).
The issue of high waste generation per capita is a challenge for the Nordic nations, as for most high-income nations. These nations also have a lot of experience employing different waste treatment technologies, especially waste-to-energy systems. These countries have defined policy measures to construct waste management plans to determine the obligations and roles of the organizations and private players engaged in trash generation, collection, and treatment in addition to technical methods for solid waste management. Even though these systems have been developed for many years, these governments have fallen short of their expectations in some areas, most notably in recycling (Eurostat, 2019). When it comes to the adoption of cutting-edge waste treatment technologies and the adaptation of their applications to the local environment for long-term situations, the waste management profiles of Nordic countries can be seen as the benchmark for other nations (Behzad et al., 2020).
Innovation in Nordic
The Nordic countries are well-known in the field of energy innovation because of substantial official investment and regulations. Energy innovation contributes significantly to the Nordic economy, making up around 6% of total income and employment, and between 5% and 9% of all industrial exports are made up of energy technology and equipment. According to EU guidelines, an energy recovery facility must achieve an R1 factor of 0,6 or above; the Nordic nations achieve values of 1,0 to 1,4; all of this is made possible by the developed framework and infrastructure for treating the waste (Manuchehr Irandoust, 2016).
Given that rural solid waste has a greater organic content (> 50%), solid waste management and the choice of appropriate technologies are crucial to understanding its characteristics and composition (Mankad et al., 2019). Although this depends on location, environment, area, and other socioeconomic factors, significant increases in the utilization of waste-to-energy technology have been encouraged. Because increased use of fossil fuels raises the risk of climate change once more, Sweden approved the use of incinerators to burn trash in order to meet its energy needs. Waste conversion into energy activities plays a vital role in the radical transformation (from a linear to a circular economy). Given that MSW’s organic component has a high calorific value, it can be recovered and used effectively for waste processing and other processing technologies (Jacob et al.2018). By using this strategy, landfill waste disposal and GHG emissions were reduced by 85% compared to 1990 (Ministry of Environment Sweden, 2020). Later, trash incineration took over the role of the harmful fossil fuel, eliminating emissions. As a result of the capacity of incineration facilities being 21 percent more than the capacity of garbage produced in Sweden (Avfall, 2016– 17), there is a growing market for waste to be used as fuel.
In the last six years, domestic wastes have been energy recovered to the extent that 50 percent of it (Emma 2019), of which 15 percent is organic recycling, 34 percent is material recycling, and 0.5 percent ends up in landfills (Avfall, 2018). The circular economy movement is carried out by the Swedish Waste Management Association, enabling consumers to utilize things better and for longer periods of time. It includes guidance and motivation to the citizens, and manufacturers to change their behaviors as well as setting up infrastructure to do the necessary sorting by themselves, thereby providing solutions to sustainable living and transforming the lives of Swedes (Sweden.se, 2021).
The most recent WTE conversion technologies primarily treat all MSW trash via thermochemical processing and biochemical conversions. During the COVID-19 outbreak, MSW waste had a high impact due to the mix of PPE kits used by patients and frontline workers disposed of in regular MSW. China reported a sixfold rise in biologically contaminated waste, which is risk waste, from 40 to 240 tons/day (ADB, 2020). Biohazardous waste is not meant to be composted, recycled, or processed for energy recovery. However, industrialized nations also faced comparable difficulties.
Even though it is known that the composition of MSW varies across developing and developed nations and even between local municipalities within the same nation, the choice of these treatments depends on the nation and the cities.
The current situation in India
Many cities have open dumping sites that affect groundwater and might be harmful to people’s health. The old dumping grounds which were on the borders of a city are now being developed, forcing their eradication either for economic interests or to make space for receiving new waste. Therefore, biomining is required to remove layers of garbage that have accumulated over time in an existing open dump yard.
In high-income nations, the majority of trash collection and treatment services are handled by formal, local agencies. However, India’s official sector has limited resources and is unable to keep up with the country’s rapidly increasing trash generation. As a result, the informal sector—also referred to as “trash pickers” has expanded. The informal sectors will continue to exist in underdeveloped nations like India as long as poverty persists and there is access to garbage (Wilson et al., 2006) This implies that it is necessary to incorporate the informal sector into waste management planning and development. (Henzler and others, 2017). To enforce wider local actors’ engagement and formalize them as the essential actors in the system, long-term cooperation between the formal and informal waste management sectors are necessary. Although they can play a significant part in material recycling, insufficient regulation frequently leads to increased environmental pollution through the release of contaminants (Robinson BH, 2009). Also while plastic waste contamination, particularly microplastics, has recently drawn increased attention due to its penetration of various food chains (Toxics Link, 2016).
MLP makes up the majority of plastic trash in India, making about 19% of the total plastic waste composition. This percentage is even higher than PET bottles’ 12 percent and 10 percent respective contributions, which are made up of bottle tops and lids. Chips, cookies, and chocolate are typically wrapped in MLP in the nation. The MLP can hardly be recycled, unlike other plastic waste like water bottles, soft drink bottles, and shampoo containers that are taken to a recycling facility to be shredded and made into garments, toys, and other useful items (Seetharaman, 2019). This is because it has multiple layers of materials like paper, paper board, polymeric materials, and aluminum foil, which must be separated at a high cost (Fine Train, 2019). The EPR regulation in India can be a great example of how to divide responsibilities based on the market value or recyclability of plastic trash, even though some environmental experts believe that it still requires additional enforcement, monitoring, and evaluation (Sharma, 2019).
Conclusion
This study examined the significant issues with solid waste management in India, where the population is growing at an exponential rate but there is a minimal municipal budget for garbage disposal. To deal with the issue of handling massive volumes of MSW, many developing countries redirect MSW to open dumping grounds. Therefore, viable and cost-effective ways to convert solid waste into energy is necessary. In addition, there are many additional problems that need to be addressed, including the political, financial, and regulatory obstacles due to a lack of resources and inconsistent laws and regulations.
The overall lack of environmental awareness and education of the public and policymakers about the subject of waste management only prolongs these unsustainable waste management systems. Synthesize these key factors as well as the related involvements of education, incentives, policy restructuring, infrastructural updates and changes, and a broad approach to WMS, all of which could improve solid-waste management (McAllister, 2015). Community education on environmental awareness and some environmental efforts can ensure a better situation for the people and future generations.
This study also offers a number of recommendations to reinforce existing waste management facilities in India where a cooperative effort of the general populace, stakeholders, and governmental and non-governmental (NGO) support is required to solve these cumulative concerns. The government and urban local bodies (ULB) are increasingly forming public-private partnerships to address the growing problem of trash management.
Finally, for the elevated usage of multi-layer packaging, biodegradable food packaging may be a favorable replacement for multi-layer plastic packaging solutions, which provide a greater difficulty to disposal and are currently neither recyclable nor degradable (Dilkes-Hoffman et al. 2018). Thus, by implementing technological advances such as (1) increasing yields and reducing the use of agrochemicals for feedstock production, (2) switching to second-and third-generation feedstocks, (3) improving energy efficiency and using renewable energy in biorefineries, (4) higher conversion efficiencies in biorefineries, and (5) further improving end-of-life management, the production and use of bioplastics could be brought into the chain.
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